This is the third and final in a three-part series. Part 1 | Part 2.
In terms of analysing George Mallory and Andrew Irvine’s summit attempt and working out what happened to Irvine and indeed his final resting place, it’s important to identify the salient factors relevant to their effort. We can reasonably surmise that Mallory and Irvine planned an early start. However, there is no clear indication as to what time they departed Camp VI for the summit but its known that no pre-war British expedition ever managed to depart before sunrise.
For the 8th of June, sunrise was estimated at 4.45 am and calculating their ascent rate and timeline is approximate at best. Fortunately, there is one clear indication of their progress obtained when Noel Odell saw Mallory and Irvine ascending the Second Rock Step at 12.50 pm and from which we can deduce their climb rate, derived from their known oxygen supply and usage rate as a function of time and thus distance.
It’s known that oxygen cylinder #9 was located in 1999 on a 200 meter section on the North East Ridge at ‘between the exit from the Yellow Band (just southwest of the twin rock towers) at 8440 m/27,690 ft. and the base of the First Step at 8500 m/27,890 ft’ as ascertained by the peerless Everest researcher Jochen Hemmleb, whose ground-breaking research was instrumental in locating Mallory’s remains. Additionally, oxygen cylinder #9 was just one of five cylinders whose pressures were likely measured by Irvine and subsequently listed on the outside of an envelope from a letter that Mallory carried on his person. The discovery of the #9 cylinder is important as it indicates their route and their rate of progress.
Indeed, given the #9 cylinder’s known capacity, pressure and the flow rates that were available, Mallory and Irvine probably reached the base of the First Rock Step between 9 am and 10 am with perhaps Irvine carrying three cylinders and one or both 6 lb sleeping bags, for a total load of 30-36 lbs and Mallory taking just two cylinders of 16 lbs and perhaps his sleeping bag of 6 lbs for a load of 22 lbs at most.
In 1924, the porters were load limited to not more than 20 lbs when climbing to establish the higher camps, so loads for Mallory and Irvine of 22-30 lbs most likely were seen as difficult but under the circumstances, acceptable for the benefit to be gained. Also, the 8lbs (one oxygen cylinder) load per man would have been reduced within three hours, where once the first oxygen cylinders were discarded after expiring, Irvine probably carried between 22-28 lbs and Mallory perhaps 8-14 lbs with Irvine acting shouldering the heavy burden.
Thus, as Mallory and Irvine climbed higher and now lighter, where by late morning they reached the North East Ridge and then following the ridge crest to the First Rock Step at 8,530 metres. Given the fact that these loads would undoubtedly slow them down its possible that they started just before dawn at 4.45 am and reached First Step around 8.30 am to 9 am.
From this standpoint, the specifics of their route now need elaboration.
Also read: Why Was 22-Year-Old Andrew Irvine Climbing MT Everest With George Mallory?
The route to the Second Step
The North East Ridge route traverses just below the First Rock Step but it’s unlikely Mallory and Irvine followed that route. Instead, they perhaps climbed the First Step either directly up the frontal face to the apex of the Step and then followed the ridge crest, but having to overcome some minor rock towers they veered to the right which would later become the modern route taken by subsequent climber to the present day but which stays below the “wall” of the ridge crest looming above them. Both routes eventually converge half-way to the Second Rock Step at a level area marked by a curious rock bollard called the “Mushroom Rock”, before continuing upwards under the ridge crest to the base of the Second Step proper.
Some have argued that Mallory and Irvine may have followed Norton and Somervell’s route toward the Great Couloir, but having seen the utter failure by the pair to get anywhere near the summit, Mallory perhaps chose the ridge crest route. Modern climbers usually take as much as 2.5 hours to reach the base of the Second Step from a point below the First Step. So it’s reasonable to assume that Mallory and Irvine were in a similar timeframe, which meant by extension that their oxygen levels were very low upon arrival at the base of the Second step.
From this point, the Mallory and Irvine story arrives at one of the most controversial and mystifying issues – the Second Step problem.
For nearly a century, researchers have struggled to understand what may have happened on or above this feature. It’s known that Noel Odell, looking upward from 8,000 metres, saw Mallory and Irvine at 12.50 pm ‘nearing the base of the final pyramid’ in his diary. That observation therefore puts them on the ridge and still climbing actually on the Second Step which was the crux of the climb or even beyond the obstacle such as the smaller and easier Third Step (which wasn’t recognised as a feature in 1924), but this latter possibility would be more difficult to achieve due to time and climbing constraints and is thus less likely.
How did they overcome the crux of the climb on the Second Step that continued to defy all the expeditions since and was thought to be so formidable that it was not climbed until 1960? Indeed, this issue continues to defy every attempt at explanation as every climber since 1924 has struggled on the Second Step to such an extent, that no climber could be said to have ever climbed the feature with “alacrity” as Odell described. There are however two possible explanations that are more likely than the rest.
As most of the Second Step is initially climbable, firstly via a natural rock ramp at the base and followed by a scramble up some stepped boulders in the midsection which then leads to a noticeable snow patch just below the main difficulty, sheer vertical crux section of some 4.5 metres high, composed of crumbling rock and topped by an irregular boulder and platform. To the immediate left of the crux there’s an “off width crack” that is wide enough to shove a boot and knee into in order to gain leverage. Additionally, at the base of the off-width crack, there’s a useful cubical boulder that can be used as a “launch pad” for any attempt to free climb the crux.
It’s possible that Mallory may have simply jammed his ice axe into the off width crack and with Irvine’s help, used the height advantage first from the top of the cubical rock and then the top of the ice axe of over a metre to simply step up and grab the ledge at the top of the crux and then haul himself up to the top of the rock step with Irvine following in his footsteps.
Another possibility questions the actual context of Odell’s sighting, specifically, that he and everyone since 1924 assumed that Mallory and Irvine had arrived at the Second Step a short time earlier and were climbing it for the first time at 12.50 pm. However, in truth we simply do not know when Mallory and Irvine arrived at the base of the Second Step as they were totally obscured all day apart for a few minutes around 12.50 pm, so it’s entirely possible that Mallory and Irvine ‘could have arrived at the Second Step perhaps as much as an hour earlier before they were finally seen by Odell.’
Thus, still being obscured by the clouds, it’s possible that Mallory with Irvine’s help firstly roped up the Second Step via a solo climb and then finally when all was ready after Mallory descended to collect Irvine, they donned their backpacks and remaining loads to begin the culmination of their ascent of the Second Step together and that is what Odell really saw at 12.50 pm – two men climbing with “alacrity” up the rock step in sequence, but aided by a rope to the top which Mallory had affixed beforehand but was unseen by Odell. Perhaps that was the only way the Second Step could ever be climbed with “alacrity” to match Odell’s sighting.
Then beyond the top of the Second Step the inclined “plateau” to the small Third Step is free of obstacles and can be traversed by modern climbers in as little as 30 minutes with only the final pyramid and 125-metre-long summit ridge beyond the apex of the pyramid remaining before the summit proper is reached. It’s possible Mallory and Irvine could have reached the vicinity of the Third Step by 1.30 pm, but by this time their oxygen reserves would be likely exhausted.
Also read: An Enduring Mystery on Everest: The Story of Mallory and Irvine
Oxygen issues and an extreme weather
That would leave them with a vexing issue – between both of them they now had only one nearly full bottle of oxygen cylinder remaining; either it was shared and they both moved slowly towards the summit of Everest, or one of them, (likely Irvine) waited at or near the Third Step, perhaps ensconced in his sleeping bag to keep warm while Mallory took the remaining oxygen cylinder and continued to the summit.
The forbidding North East ridge of Everest looking down from high on the final pyramid above the 8,710 metres high Third Step with various waypoints and background outlined. Note the indicated boulder cluster on the inclined “plateau” below the Third Step (marked in red oval). We suggest that this unexplored boulder cluster (sometimes nicknamed “the Olga’s”) is a prime search location for any discarded artefacts from Mallory and Irvine. If the theory in this article is correct, then two oxygen cylinders and possibly Mallory’s metal carry frame as well as discarded food tins etc. may be concealed, semi-buried amongst this mysterious boulder cluster. Photo: Stuart Holmes
It was acceptable amongst English climbers of that era for the lead climber to continue alone if there was a summit possibility and in that sense Mallory and Irvine were no exception to that ethos. Norton had done that a few days earlier.
It is assumed that if the first possibility of sharing the last cylinder was too impractical and an obstacle for Mallory and Irvine to continue, then the other option where only Mallory continued to the summit with the last cylinder as Irvine waited in a safe, sheltered locale for his return is realistically the only other viable possibility, unless they were to withdraw then in defeat.
The following reconstruction may therefore be the closest evaluation as to what happened to Mallory and Irvine that currently exists based on the analysis presented here on these pages.
If they indeed chose the latter option, then Irvine waited below the Third Step, sheltering amongst the most likely location, an isolated cluster of boulders nicknamed “The Olga’s”, with his sleeping bag and provisions as Mallory continued to the summit with the spare 5th cylinder and his sleeping bag in case, they were both overtaken by bad weather.
Another view of the remote and unexplored boulder cluster, sometimes nicknamed “The Olga’s” (red circled), in relation to nearby features high on the mountain. The Third Step stands at 8,710 metres altitude and Mallory’s likely solo ascent route up the final snow pyramid before he vanishes over onto the north face of the pyramid is marked in red. Note the diversion to the lee of the pyramid under the “north pillar” which would provide a windbreak for a sheltering Mallory during the mid-afternoon storm.. Mallory suggested that if the weather was inclement, he may ascend up to the left, toward the apex of the pyramid itself to shelter from the prevailing westerly winds. Photo: Stuart Holmes
Thus, Irvine began his vigil in his sleeping bag to await Mallory’s return from the summit. Soon the weather did worsen, as a bad squall began. At approximately 2 pm, the storm hit the upper mountain, including engulfing Camp VI where Odell sheltered.
Interestingly, Odell was able to climb some 100 metres above Camp VI until at 3 pm, when conditions worsened and he was forced to shelter behind a boulder for the storm to pass, which it finally did at 4 pm after which the mountain was enveloped in sunshine as Odell returned to Camp VI and soon thereafter descended to the North Col.
Revealingly, Odell sustained no hint of frostbite or adverse health from a position over 8,200 metres in altitude as he sheltered in the open behind the boulder during the worst of the storm. By contrast, at or near 8,700 metres, the sheltering Irvine would have been in a colder place with thinner air, but still better sheltered behind some boulders and warmer too in his sleeping bag plus food and drink to sustain him most likely. Thus, it’s possible that his situation was comparable or even slightly better than that of Odell despite the higher altitude.
For Mallory, during this two hour bout of bad weather, he initially would have ascended the right side of the final pyramid when the squall began, however, being on the move and with oxygen to keep him warm, Mallory may have diverted to the left into the leeward side of the final pyramid, so as to use its bulk as a giant windbreak from the prevailing westerly squall.
Mallory himself specified this option before departing with Irvine, as he wanted the expedition photographer John Noel to be in position and looking at the right place with his camera to record the historic ascent. By 3 pm, though when conditions worsened, Mallory may well have been on or just under the apex of the “North pillar” of the final pyramid and beginning to run out of cover as he still had over 125 metres on the exposed final summit ridge above him to finally gain the summit. Being this close to the summit, turning around now would simply be impossible and unthinkable for Mallory to contemplate as he’d never have this opportunity again.
Also read: Could They Have Climbed the Everest: Part 2 of the Story of Mallory and Irvine
Descending the Second Step
By 4 pm though Mallory would be preparing to move again, firstly continuing up and over the apex of the final pyramid or diverting around onto the north face of the pyramid via a route used by later climbers and known as the “dihedrals”, depending on how high Mallory was when he paused for the storm. With a rest for an hour, Mallory could have reached the summit by 4.30 pm at the earliest which was well past his planned turnaround time. However, despite the late hour there was still enough time to rendezvous with the waiting Irvine and then to descend off the ridge as rapidly as possible before dark. Mallory alone may well have stood on the summit and with his borrowed camera, taken a few photographs down toward basecamp, the view into Nepal and toward India and over to Makalu as well.
Of course, if the pair continued together then they both may have weathered the storm and stood on the summit of Everest well past their turnaround time due to a slower ascent as they’d have to share the oxygen via the one mouthpiece and proceed in a stop-start motion. However, their sleeping bags would provide them with added protection and permit a longer turnaround time if circumstances were against them, so they would still survive.
Descending the Second Step would be difficult, but with late evening light, and the possible rope affixed to the top of the Step to utilise, it is possible they would have been at the base of the Second Step by 6.30 pm with the knife edge ridge leading down to the First Step still to descend. Mallory would have led the way with Irvine in tow, but it is likely that dusk was practically over before they reached below the base of the First Step. The most difficult section of the descent was now over. Mallory and Irvine now were almost engulfed by the night and with just little moonlight to navigate by they descended of the North East Ridge toward their camp.
Somewhere though Mallory lost his footing on an easy terraced section and fell in the dark at about 8,450 metres. Irvine instinctively flung aside his ice axe and hauled hard on the rope, frantically trying to belay Mallory, who tumbled down a short distance but likely recovered, thanks to Irvine’s strength belaying on the rope. A lightly injured but shaken Mallory recovered, but discovered that his wristwatch and altimeter was damaged and so he pocketed them before gingerly proceeding down the terraces.
Perhaps realising his plight, Mallory then made a far-reaching decision to hand over his camera containing the summit photographs to Irvine for safekeeping, as if he didn’t survive at least Irvine could show the world what they achieved on that epic day. By now though they were off their planned route and amongst the maze of terraces and needing to descend as rapidly as possible in order to reach camp. Deciding to descend to the lowest terraces and link up with the beginnings of the Norton and Somervell route toward Camp VI, the pair continued to descend until a few hours later, now very low in the “Yellow Band” terraces there was a second mishap and Mallory miscalculated either by fatigue or misstep and fell into the darkness.
Again, Irvine likely hauled hard on the rope, but in this case, he may have been taken by surprise in the darkness and wasn’t able to react fast enough as Mallory fell further and thus Irvine had more work to do in order to slow and stop Mallory’s fall. Somehow though he succeeded and Mallory came to a halt dangling on the rope end which dug deeply into his side.
But then tragedy struck as the rope became overstrained and snapped, plunging Mallory down the slope of the basin well over 100 metres to his eventual death. The last trace of Irvine being connected together with Mallory was left by the force pattern from the belaying rope, marking Mallory’s side behind his left armpit and left side for all time. The same imprint was still there in 1999 when Mallory’s body was finally found, frozen in time and unchanged.
But what happened to Irvine?
In 1960, Xu Jing, a Chinese climber and deputy leader of the expedition in that year was on a more direct descent route from the base of the First Step toward their Camp VI located further to the west of the 1924 Camp VI closer to the middle of the North face by a snow basin. As Xu Jing exited the Yellow Band on his descent towards his Camp VI, something caught his eye. According to Xu Jing, it was a human body inside a sleeping bag! He had certainly found Irvine as no other climber by 1960 had perished at that altitude!
When he finally related his story in 2001, no one at the time had realised that two of Mallory and Irvine’s sleeping bags were missing from Camp VI and so Xu Jing’s sleeping bag observation of his account was summarily dismissed. However, Xu Jing was right in what he saw and it is highly likely that Irvine was sheltering in a sleeping bag at around 8,300 metres.
An oblique view of the summit right with the Chinese Camp VII situated at the frontal base of the First Step (yellow oval) form which Xu Jing departed for Camp VI via a more direct route cutting down through to the lower “Yellow band” (see yellow dashed line indicating his likely route). The authors suggest Xu Jing low in the “yellow band” looked to the west and perhaps upward (blue arrow) and saw Irvine semi-concealed in the cliffs and terraces of the lower “yellow band”, cocooned in at least one sleeping bags (red oval) which is where Irvine likely still is now. Photo: Stuart Holmes
Indeed, there may be merit in re-tracing Mallory’s final fall line back up to the lower cliffs of the “yellow band”, looking for any lost items from Mallory, such as a leather satchel or pouch containing any putative lost items from Mallory, but locating Irvine’s body would be the main priority, as apart from his own camera, if Mallory’s camera is also with him, then that fact in itself tacitly indicates that Mallory at least summited alone in the late afternoon whilst Irvine waited his return from a sheltered location in his sleeping bag likely below the Third Step, as described in this reconstructed scenario.
So where is Irvine now? Most likely where Xu Jing saw him in 1960, still frozen to a lower terrace around 8,300 metres, sheltered behind some cliffs and boulders from the wind as he did soon after Mallory was lost on that night, back in June 1924.
Also read: Minute Plans and a Missing Camera: Part 3 of the Mystery of Mallory and Irvine
Irvine certainly played his part, indeed for all we know, it may have been his idea to maximise their chances for the summit by suggesting taking a spare oxygen cylinder and the sleeping bags for redundancy and protection “in extremis”. Intriguingly as we argue, there is some evidence of this planning by Irvine via a missing mouthpiece from a spare oxygen set stored above the North Col used mainly by descending climbers and likely taken by Irvine on June 6 as he and Mallory climbed up the North Ridge. Irvine seemed to be thinking ahead and was taking a back-up “just in case”.
So, if Irvine was prepared to think ahead by adding critical redundancy to increase the odds of gaining the summit, why not consider other “back-ups” later on the summit attempt itself, such as a spare oxygen cylinder and sleeping bags in case the climb took longer than they anticipated?
Apart from finding Irvine himself likely in his sleeping bag low in the “yellow band”, perhaps one day we may obtain final confirmation of their plans and summit success amongst a remote, officially unnamed and a never-explored cluster of boulders below the Third Step nicknamed “The Olgas”, with rusted remains of two oxygen cylinders, perhaps an aluminium carry frame, even some odd food tins semi-buried by scree and snow that was left behind by a patient, Andrew Irvine. Together they made history and in the process became legends of Everest.
Philip Summers is an Australian researcher, historian and writer with a particular interest in the early British Pre-War Everest expeditions and the Soviet/Russian Space programme to the present day. He can be contacted at everest1924@mail.com.
Ajay Dandekar is a historian and a faculty member of Shiv Nadar University, Delhi. He can be contacted at ajayd16@gmail.com.